“The battle would be held up as a coming-of-age moment for the Western World.”

THE Battle of Marathon, fought in 490 BCE, stands as one of the most decisive events in history. Against overwhelming odds, a small force of Athenian hoplites held back the might of the Persian Empire, preserving Greek independence and shaping the trajectory of Western civilization.

The battle demonstrated the effectiveness of Greek tactics, inspired the legendary run from Marathon to Athens, and left a legacy that still resonates today.

Here’s the story:

Persian Invasion

The roots of the Battle of Marathon lay in a growing rivalry between Greece and the expanding Persian Empire to the east.

The Persians, led by Darius I, sought to punish Athens for its support of the Ionian Revolt—a rebellion of Greek cities in Asia Minor against Persian rule. Determined to subjugate the Greek mainland, Darius launched an invasion, viewing it as an opportunity to expand his empire and reassert Persian dominance.

The Persian fleet arrived in Greece in the summer of 490 BC, initially capturing the Cyclades islands as it moved toward the mainland. Their goal was to land near Athens, disrupt Greek unity, and conquer key cities in the region.

Guided by exiled tyrant Hippias, the Persian forces landed on the plains of Marathon, a patch of ground about 26 miles northeast of Athens. This site was strategically chosen to give the Persians space for their cavalry, which they considered crucial to their victory.

Uniting Against a the Common Enemy

When news of the Persian landing reached Athens, the city-state quickly mobilized. The Athenians dispatched their fastest runner, Pheidippides, to request aid from Sparta, their formidable neighbor known for its military prowess. The two city states were about 35 miles apart.

However, the Spartans were unable to mobilize troops to march to the aid of Athens due to a religious festival. So the Athenians, led by their general Miltiades, were forced to confront the Persians alone, save for a small contingent of soldiers from Plataea, a loyal ally.

The Greek army numbered around 10,000 hoplites, compared to an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 Persian soldiers. Although greatly outnumbered, the Greek forces had the advantage of unity, discipline, and familiarity with the terrain.

Hoplites vs. Cavalry

The contrasting armies at Marathon reflected different approaches to warfare. The Greeks relied on their hoplites—well-trained, heavily armored soldiers whose primary weapons were long spears and large, round shields.

The hoplites fought in the phalanx formation, which required coordination and discipline, to create a formidable wall of spears that could withstand charges and push forward with lethal efficiency.

The Persians, by contrast, were a diverse army composed of troops from across the empire, including archers, light infantry, and cavalry. The Persian infantry wore lighter armor, typically woven of linen and leather, and used shorter weapons, like bows and daggers.

Persian tactics relied on the mobility of their cavalry and the effectiveness of their archers to weaken enemy formations from a distance before closing in. However, at Marathon, their cavalry was absent for unknown reasons, likely due to logistical challenges or miscommunication.

The Commanders

The Athenians were led by Miltiades, an experienced general familiar with Persian tactics from his earlier time as a leader in the Persian-controlled region of Thrace. Miltiades was a skilled strategist who had rallied the Athenian generals to support an aggressive stance, advocating for a direct engagement with the Persians rather than waiting for reinforcements. His confidence and knowledge proved critical to the Greek strategy.

On the Persian side, the invasion was commanded by the generals Datis and Artaphernes, trusted commanders of King Darius. Datis was an experienced general who had led successful campaigns throughout the empire, while Artaphernes was a nephew of the king. Despite their experience, Datis and Artaphernes faced challenges in coordinating the diverse elements of the Persian army and adapting to the unfamiliar terrain.

A Risky Strategy Pays Off

On the morning of the battle, the Greeks launched a surprise attack against the Persian beachhead, catching the inavders off-guard. Rather than waiting in defensive positions, Miltiades ordered the Athenian hoplites to advance swiftly across the plain. This risky maneuver minimized the time that the Greeks would be vulnerable to Persian archers, allowing them to close the distance quickly.

As they charged, the Greek forces formed an unusual battle line, strengthening their wings while keeping the center relatively thin. This tactic aimed to lure the Persian center forward, enabling the Greeks to encircle the Persian troops once engaged. The phalanx formation proved devastatingly effective, allowing the Greek center to withstand the initial Persian assault and gain the upper hand in close combat.

The battle was intense, with the Greeks pushing back the Persian center while their reinforced wings surrounded the Persian flanks. Within hours, the Persians began to falter, and as panic spread, they retreated toward their ships. The Greeks pursued them, causing further casualties as the invaders attempted to board and flee.

The Persian forces suffered heavy losses, with an estimated 6,400 killed; the Greeks suffered just 192 dead. The scale of the Persian casualties shocked the invaders and marked a crushing blow to Darius’s ambitions in Greece. The Greeks, on the other hand, saw their relatively light losses as a testament to the effectiveness of their tactics and the strength of their warriors.

The Birth of Western Confidence

The Greek victory at Marathon had far-reaching consequences. For Greece, it was a moment of national pride, reinforcing the ideals of unity and freedom. The Athenians saw their triumph as validation of their democratic ideals and military strength, setting a precedent for future resistance against invaders.

For the Persian Empire, Marathon was a major setback. Although it did not end Persian ambitions in Greece—Darius’s son, Xerxes I, would launch a larger invasion a decade later—it demonstrated that the Greeks were capable of formidable resistance. This knowledge shaped future Persian tactics and intensified their desire to conquer Greece and suppress any threats to their empire.

The battle also gave rise to the legendary tale of Pheidippides, the Athenian messenger who ran from Marathon to Athens to announce the victory and then promptly died of exhaustion. While historical accounts vary, this story became the inspiration for the modern marathon race, linking the endurance of the ancient Greeks to modern athletics.

Above all else, Marathon marked a pivotal moment in which Athens survived and would be permitted to enjoy its ‘golden age,‘ a period of art, culture and philosophy that wing ring down through the ages. Indeed, even centuries later, the battle would be held up as a coming-of-age moment for the Western World.

“[The] victory endowed the Greeks with a faith in their destiny that was to endure for three centuries, during which Western culture was born,” observed John Stuart Mill. “The Battle of Marathon, even as an event in British history, is more important than the Battle of Hastings.”

“If the Athenians had lost in Marathon,” agreed sci-fi luminary Isaac Asimov, “Greece might have never gone to develop the peak of its civilization, a peak whose fruits we moderns have inherited.”