“He brought Athens both glory and defeat through decades of military service.”

By Joseph Stiles

LARGELY A forgotten figure today, the ancient Greek statesman and general Chares played a critical role in the military fortunes of Athens in the 4th century BCE. In his time, he brought Athens both glory and defeat through decades of military service and the undertaking of numerous foreign expeditions. At the height of his power, he won a great victory over the Persians which he himself dubbed “a sister of Marathon.” His former triumphs were in the end overshadowed by the rise of Macedon and his catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE.

Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE was Athens’ first great victory over the invading Persians. Chares would dub his own Persian triumph as “a sister of Marathon.” (Image source: WikiMedia Commons)

We know nothing of Chare’s childhood; only that he was the son of a man named Theochares. The ancient biographer Plutarch writes that the Chares in his youth was “a vigorous and stout-bodied young man.” (Plutarch, Whether an Aged Man Ought to Meddle in State Affairs 8.)

Chares’ first military action came in 367/366 BCE when he was sent to assist the city of Phlius, in the Peloponnese, then in conflict with its neighbors Argos and Sicyon. Chares provided valuable service to the Philasians pushing the Argives off a critical road thus allowing his allies to move people and supplies.

After this victory, Chares next went to work against a fort being built by the Sicyonians at Thyamia on the border of Philus. Chares and the Philasians mounted their attack just before sunset when the Sicyonians were getting ready for sleep and easily seized the fort. In celebration of the victory the allies feasted on the supplies the Sicyonians left behind. The Philasians then finished building the fort and used it themselves (Xenophon, Hellenica 7.2.17-23.)

That same year Chares was called upon to lead an attack against Oropos in Attica which had recently been seized by a group of anti-Athenian exiles. The Athenians found little support in their efforts and the campaign was called off. (Xenophon, Hellenica 7.4.1.)

Several years later in 361 BCE, we find Chares on the island of Corcyra supporting the installation of an oligarchy and the suppression of a democratic faction. The plotters began their coup by cutting themselves before running bleeding into the marketplace alleging that they had been attacked. The Corcyrean assembly was summoned in response and the oligarchists took the opportunity to seize the leader of the democrats. (Aeneas, Tacticus 11.13) The ancient writer Diodorus sums up Chares’ role in the affair stating how he performed many “lawless acts, accomplished nothing good.” (Diodorus, 15.95.3.) The entire episode was a disservice to Athens’ democratic credentials.

In 358 BCE, Chares was sent on an expedition to the semi barbaric region of Thrace. What little we know of the military details comes from the writer Polyaenus. The weather was terrible in Thrace and Chares had problems motivating his freezing soldiers. Chares came up with the idea to have his soldiers switch clothes with each other so that all would at least be warm in turn. After this, the men were ready to march. Later, Chares found himself pursued by the local Thracians who harassed the rear of his column. Ingeniously Chares sent mounted trumpeters to circle around to the Thracians rear. Hearing the sounds, the Thracians believed themselves surrounded in ambush and halted their pursuit. The distraction of his trumpeters allowed Chares to make good on his escape. (Polyaenus, Stratagems 3.13.2-3.)

With the outbreak of the Social War (357-355), Athens found itself against a coalition of Aegean city states: Chios, Cos, Rhodes and Byzantium. Chares, along with the famed Athenian general Chabrias, set out against the island of Chios. For the campaign, Chares commanded the infantry and Chabrias the fleet. Chares set about laying siege and engaged in battle with the enemy on land while Chabrias fought in an engagement at sea. Unfortunately, for the Athenians, Chabrias was killed in the ensuing battle and the Athenian fleet defeated. The death of Chabrias and the naval defeat resulted in the failure of the operation as a whole. (Diodorus, 16.7.3-4.)

Regrouping, the Athenians were not ready to give up and dispatched another expedition under the famous general Iphicrates along with Timotheus. These two generals would join up with Chares forces for a renewed assault. Bad weather compelled Iphicrates and Timotheus to call off their involvement in the attack. Even without his colleagues’ support Chares decided to foolishly press ahead himself. The resulting naval engagement, referred to as the Battle of Embata, was another Athenian defeat and a low point in Chares’ military career. (Diodorus, 16.21)

The defeat at Chios caused great controversy in Athens as Chares blamed his two co-commanders for the humiliation and pressed charges against them. Chares’ efforts proved successful as the other commanders were fined and dismissed. (Diodorus, 16.21.4.) Timotheus would declare that Chares, and strongly built men like him, due to their alleged lack of intelligence were not fit to be generals only to carry a general’s bedding! (Plutarch, Whether an Aged Man Ought to Meddle in State Affairs 8.) According to Plutarch, Chares later when reminiscing about his career and showing off his war wounds admitted to his previous recklessness. “I was behaving more like an impetuous youth than like a general in command of so large a force,” he said. (Plutarch, Pelopidas 2.3.)

Following the debacle, Chares in search of funds would turn his attention towards Asia and the Persian Empire. By 355 BCE, Chares had entered into the service of Artabazus II, the Persian satrap (governor) of Hellespontine Phrygia, bringing his Athenian expeditionary force with him.

Artabazus had revolted against the Persian king and was in need of assistance. According to Diodorus, Artabazus had few men under his command and was reliant on Chares. The Persian king sent a satrapal army to crush Artabazus and Chares. The resulting battle was a decisive victory for Chares and the Athenians. Artabazus, pleased at the outcome, rewarded the Athenians handsomely with money and supplies. (Diodorus. 16.22.1-2.) Chares, basking in his glory, wrote back to Athens dubbing the victory to be “a sister of Marathon ” recalling the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE over an invading Persian army. (Plutarch, Aratus 16.3.)

Chares’ alliance with Artabazus fell apart not long after. The Persian king began to pressure Athens and threatened to support the city’s enemies unless Chares ceased his efforts. (Diodorus. 16.22.2.)

Complying with the Persian demands, Chares left Artabazus service. He then set about subduing the surrounding region. Chares seized control of Lampsacus and Sigeum. (Demosthenes, Olynthiac 2.28.) He would also prey upon Sestus in the Hellespont. According to Diodorus, Chares brutally massacred and enslaved the citizens, another contemptible episode in his career. (Diodorus, 16.34.)

The ancient writer Polyaenus preserves a story about Chares besieging the city of Methymna, on the island of Lesbos, whose ruler was an ally of Artabazus. In response to the attack, Artabazus sent his brother-in-law the general Memnon of Rhodes to intervene. Memnon warned Chares that the next night he would arrive with a large army. Chares mocked the Rhodian believing that no large force could arrive that quickly. The Athenian was correct as Memnon could only dispatch 1,200 men to relieve the city. Regardless, Memnon gave them orders to attack with the hope of striking fear into the Athenians. Facing Memnon’s soldiers and seeing their campfires, Chares persuaded himself that a large army had in fact arrived and taken possession of Methymna’s citadel. Deeming further efforts futile, Chares broke off the siege and made a speedy retreat. (Polyaenus, Stratagems 5.44.3.)

The next phase of Chares’ career pitted him against the rising power of Macedonian king Philip II. Since coming to power in 359 BCE, Philip had transformed the northern Greek kingdom of Macedon into a military power and set about expanding his kingdom bringing him into conflict with Athens. Polyaenus, reports that Chares attempted to ambush Philip at sea near Neapolis. Philip was returning from campaign and Chares perhaps thought he could catch the Macedonians unaware. The Macedonian king however alluded Chares’ superior naval forces by breaking away with a group of light fast ships. (Polyaenus, Stratagems 4.2.22.)

Chares’ attempts to counter the Macedonians in the coming years would prove ineffective. In 353/52, Chares would be sent to assist the Phocians against Macedon only to arrive too late. He witnessed first-hand the bloody Battle of Crocus Field where Philip annihilated the Phocian army. The desperate survivors swam to Chares nearby ships. (Diodorus, 16.35.5.) Again in 349 BCE, when Philip besieged Olynthus, Chares was dispatched with a force to help the city only to be driven off by a storm. (Suda, ka.356.) The following year he did manage to score his first victory against the Macedonians defeating one of Philip’s mercenary commanders named Adaeus. Chares hosted a grand celebration in Athens to complement his triumph. (Athenaeus, Deipnosophists 12.43.)

During this period and subsequent years, Chares looks to have developed a lavish lifestyle and neglected military affairs. The ancient writer Theopompus records that he started bringing personal musicians and courtesans with him when on campaign. Further, Theopompus adds that Chares would spend his money wildly in Athens bribing orators and influencing the youth making himself “more popular than any other citizen.” (Athenaeus, Deipnosophists 12.43.) Most seriously Chares was accused of misusing military funds and deserting his command when on campaign in Thracian Chersonesus. Chares’ absence in part may have lead to the defeat of Athens ally the Tharcian king Cersobleptes by Philip. (Aeschines, On The Embassy 71;73; 90; 92.)

In 340 BCE, Chares was sent to Byzantium to help defend the city from Philip. The Byzantines knowing Chares reputation refused him entry to the harbor and he was soon replaced by Phocian. (Plutarch, Phocian 14.2.) Nevertheless, after this rebuff, Chares again took the field to combat Philip in the fateful year of 338 BCE. Chares, and Proxenus, occupied a critical pass at Amphissa in Central Greece with the hope of stopping Philip. Initially, the plan worked and the Macedonians proved unable to breakthrough Chares and Proxenus’ blockade. Philip did not give up however and instead hatched a plan to trick his adversaries. He wrote a fake letter speaking of a rebellion in Thrace and his intention to withdraw from Amphissa. Philip allowed this letter to fall into the hands of the Athenians and Chares withdrew believing the danger had passed. Philip then promptly captured the pass. (Polyaenus, Stratagems 4.2.8.)

After the humiliation at Amphissa, Chares looks to have regained his footing somewhat. Details are vague but the Athenian orator Demosthenes mentions a “battle by the river” and a “winter battle.” (Demosthenes, On the Crown 18.216) Judging by Demosthenes’ positive tone about these engagements it seems likely that Athens won two minor victories against the Macedonians. The final outcome of the campaign would be determined at the decisive Battle of Chaeronea. At Chaeronea, King Philip would face down a joint army of both Thebes and Athens. (Diodorus, 16.85.2.)

The Athenian contingent at the battle was again under the command Chares and Lysicles. Diodorus presents Chares as senior in command of the two generals at the battle. If Polyaenus is to be believed in the course of the battle Philip initiated a feigned retreat onto advantageous ground. The Athenians fell into his trap, advancing only to be counterattacked by the Macedonians and crushed. (Polyaenus, Stratagems 4.2.2.) On the other side of the battlefield the Theban army also met with a terrible defeat with Philip’s son Alexander (the Great) playing a prominent role. Despite being in command blame for the disaster at Chaeronea did not fall on Chares. He either used his political connections to avoid prosecution or perhaps withdrew for a time to Sigeum. His co-commander Lysicles was not so lucky and ended up being executed for the defeat. (Diodorus, 16.88.1.)

In 336 BCE, Philip’s son Alexander the Great came to the Macedonian throne in the aftermath of his father’s assassination. The Thebans chose to use the instability caused by Philip’s death to revolt against Macedonian rule. Alexander would swiftly crush rebellious Thebes and then set his sights on Athens demanding the city surrender to him nine leading citizens among them Chares. (Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander 1.10.4-5.) Alexander would however soon relent, only demanding that one of the nine be sent into exile.

Later in 334, when Alexander invaded Asia, Chares would get his chance to meet the Macedonian king. Living at Sigeum at the time, Chares came to visit Alexander at nearby Ilium and awarded him a golden crown. (Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander 1.12.1.) Despite this brief meeting, Chares would ultimately enter Persian service against Alexander.

In 332/331 we find Chares fighting on Lesbos at Mytilene against Macedon and ultimately being forced out of the city. (Arrian, Anabasis 3.2.6.) In a final note on his military career, Plutarch mentions Chares later serving as a mercenary commander at Taenarum in the Peloponnese. (Plutarch, Lives of the Ten Orators 848e.) Chares’ demise predated that of Demosthenes own in 322, as the orator a letter reported the death of the famed general. (Demosthenes, Letters 3.31.)

Ancient writers didn’t think too highly of Chares’ generalship. Theopompus refers to him as a “slow and stupid man.” (Athenaeus, Deipnosophists 12.43.) Diodorus says Chares “was no better than any average soldier” (Diodorus, 16.85.7.) Plutarch highlights Chares physical strength and war wounds while repeating Timotheus’ statement that men like him are fit only to do laborious tasks. (Plutarch, Whether an Aged Man Ought to Meddle in State Affairs 8.) Having examined his military career these sentiments are not entirely accurate. Chares was certainly not “stupid.” His sunset attack on the Sicyonians, his successful retreat from the Thracians and his attempted ambush of Philip at Neapolis were creative acts of generalship. The Athenian commander’s Persian victory was also a notable victory. In the end though Chares’ successes will always be overshadowed by his disastrous defeats at Embata and Chaeronea.

Joseph Stiles is the author of Alexander the Great and Persia: From Conqueror to King of Asia (Pen & Sword, 2022).  He has a bachelor’s degree in history from Temple University and recently gained his master’s degree in World History from Norwich University, Vermont, where his research centered on Alexander the Great and his policies in the East. He now works as a teacher and lives in suburban Philadelphia.